Browsing by Author "Kutz, Susan J."
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Item Open Access Bacterial and parasitic microbiome of mantled howler monkeys: interactions and implications of human disturbance(2021-04-28) Macfarland, Colin Evan; Melin, Amanda; Buret, Andre G.; Kutz, Susan J.; Wasmuth, James; Pavelka, Mary Susan; Poissant, Jocelyn; Peric, SabrinaThe gastrointestinal (GI) microbiome plays a significant role in contributing to the digestive health of the host. The community of bacteria, parasites and other microorganisms that make up the GI microbiome are known to change in response to external and internal factors including diet, stress, infection, and other environmental conditions. GI parasites are typically harmful organisms that affect hosts through triggering inflammatory response, reducing nutrient availability, and change mutualistic bacterial communities in the gut. However, they have been found to benefit the host in some circumstances. For example, helminthic parasites may have a role protecting the host from chronic inflammation caused by pathogenic bacteria or inflammatory bowel disease. In this thesis, I study the gut bacteria and parasites of populations of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in northwestern Costa Rica. I examine the extent to which the bacterial microbiome of howler monkeys is different in the presence of infection by helminths, and if howlers living in areas of anthropogenic habitat fragmentation have observable differences in the bacterial microbiome or helminth parasites. I used coprological examination of fecal flotations to assess parasitism, and 16S high-throughput sequencing to assess bacterial abundances. I found evidence of several helminth taxa infecting these howlers, including from the genera Controrchis, Strongyloides, Enterobius, and an unidentified Trematode. Howler monkeys infected with helminth parasites did not show a significantly different bacterial diversity; however, helminth-positive howlers have significant differences in relative abundances of Clostridiales and Bacteroidales bacteria. Furthermore, I found that howlers living in areas with anthropogenic habitat fragmentation had significantly lower diversity of gastrointestinal bacteria than howlers living in continuous forest. Lastly, I found that the howler populations within Sector Santa Rosa had a higher density of parasite infection, compared to those living in anthropogenically fragmented habitats. My research on the gastrointestinal and parasite microbiome of howlers provides new insights into the health and ecology of wild primates; further research that compares phenomena occurring in human populations and non-human primates is likely to be fruitful. My work provides new data on the impacts of habitat fragmentation that can inform primate conservation efforts, health monitoring efforts, and management decisions.Item Open Access Biosocial Complexities of Antimicrobial Use in Dairy Farming in Alberta, Canada(2020-07-24) Ida, Jennifer A.; Barkema, Herman W.; Wilson, Warren M.; Gerlach, S. Craig; Adams, Cindy L.; Kutz, Susan J.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR), or the ability of a microbe to withstand treatment with antibiotics, is an emerging health issue that has been largely attributed to the inappropriate use of antimicrobial treatments. Many of the current research and policy initiatives focus on knowledge translation and behavioral change mechanisms as ways to achieve absolute reductions in antimicrobial use across all health sectors. However, the current approach fails to address underlying drivers of practice and is narrowly focused on achieving a numeric goal. Given the failure to understand the underlying drivers of decisions made by dairy farmers concerning antimicrobial use (AMU), this study sought to understand one community’s perceptions surrounding AMU, AMR, and regulation in the dairy farming industry in Alberta via the use of ethnography. Specifically, this included participation in on-farm activities (i.e., milking) and observations of relevant interactions (i.e., herd health exams) on dairy farms in Central Alberta for a period of 3.5 months. Interviews were conducted with 25 dairy farmers. Nine of these interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis. Thematic analyses resulted in four key takeaways. Farmers: 1) feel that AMU policies implemented in other contexts are impractical and are concerned that such policies, if implemented in Alberta, would constrain their freedom to make what they perceive to be the best decisions about AMU for their animals; 2) believe that their first-hand knowledge is undervalued by both consumers and policy-makers; 3) do not believe that the public trusts them to make the correct AMU choices and, consequently, worry that AMU policy will be guided by what they believe are misguided consumer concerns; 4) farmers are skeptical of a link between AMU in livestock and AMR in humans. Based on these findings, a better understanding of the sociocultural and political-economic infrastructure that supports such perceptions is warranted and should inform future policy.Item Open Access Chronic Wasting Disease: Investigations on Prion Shedding and Risk of Transmission to Caribou(2016) Cheng, Yo Ching; Gilch, Sabine; Jirik, Frank Robert; Kutz, Susan J.Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible prion disease affecting cervids mainly in North America. The responsible agent for this disease is the protease-resistant and infectious prion protein isoform (PrPSc) which is converted from a normal host-encoded glycoprotein (PrPC). In this study, I employed a novel in vitro amplification assay; the real-time quaking-induced conversion assay (RT-QuIC) to detect CWD prions in feces. I demonstrated the use of optimized RT-QuIC to define the shedding pattern of CWD prions in feces during the course of CWD. Additionally, I analyzed the distribution of PrP polymorphism among caribou populations in Alberta. The results permit predictions on the probability of CWD transmission to caribou populations. My studies provide a new tool to improve CWD surveillance and transmission risk assessment, and may be useful for CWD management in the future.Item Open Access Defining parasite biodiversity at high latitudes of North America: new host and geographic records for Onchocerca cervipedis (Nematoda: Onchocercidae) in moose and caribou(BioMed Central, 2012-10-30) Kutz, Susan J.; Verocai, Guilherme G.; Lejeune, Manigandan; Beckmen, Kimberlee B.; Kashivakura, Cyntia K.; Veitch, Alasdair M.; Popko, Richard A.; Fuentealba, Carmen; Hoberg, Eric P.Item Open Access Determining the Geographic Distribution of Filarioid Nematodes in Caribou in Canada(2023-11-16) Mariyam Thomas, Aparna; Kutz, Susan J.; Melin, Amanda Dawn; Soghigian, John Steven; Verocai, Guilherme Gomes; Buret, Andre G.The caribou (Rangifer tarandus sspp.) is a keystone wildlife species in northern ecosystems that plays a central role in the lives of the Indigenous People as a cultural and spiritual icon. The Arctic is currently experiencing unpredictable changes due to various factors, including climate change, and warming temperatures and change in precipitation in the Arctic facilitate the transmission of arthropod-borne parasites. Caribou are hosts to several vector-borne parasites, which includes protozoans such as Babesia odocoilei and Besnoitia tarandi, and filarioid nematodes of the genus Setaria, Onchocerca, and Rumenfilaria. Some caribou populations are declining as a result of rapidly changing climate and multiple stressors, including these vector-borne parasites. Filarioids are an important cause of morbidity, and occasional mortality in Rangifer in Fennoscandia. However, the ecology and epidemiology of these parasites in caribou in North America, including Canada is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the parasitic diversity and geographic distribution of filarioid nematodes in three Canadian designatable units (DU) of caribou, representing Barrenground, Boreal Woodland and Dolphin & Union Caribou from Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Newfoundland & Labrador. Genomic DNA extracted from 768 blood samples was screened using real-time PCR. The positive samples were Sanger sequenced to identify the parasite present. Based on the sequencing results, we identified Setaria yehi and Onchocerca cervipedis s.l. I then standardized a TaqMan probe based duplex droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) protocol for the simultaneous detection of S. yehi and O. cervipedis s.l. I adopted a conservative approach for ddPCR to make the technique time- and cost-effective. Out of 768 samples, 136 samples were screened using ddPCR. Based on real-time PCR results, 8/768 samples were positive. Setaria yehi and O. cervipedis s.l. were present in 4 separate samples (0.5%) each. Using ddPCR, 60/136 samples were positive (44.1%). Setaria yehi was the most common one with 40/136 positive samples (29.4%); Onchocerca cervipedis s.l. was present in 10/136 samples (7.3%), and 10/136 samples (7.3%) had a co-infection. Setaria yehi was detected from all three DUs tested. Onchocerca cervipedis s.l. were found from Barrenground and Boreal Woodland caribou, but not from the Dolphin and Union caribou herd. Through this broad-based survey and by developing and implementing advanced molecular methodologies, I have detailed the distribution and diversity of S. yehi and O. cervipedis s.l. in parts of three Canadian DUs of caribou. Filarioids are important pathogen nematodes which can cause chronic illness in Rangifer and understanding their distribution and epidemiology helps to know the impacts of these parasites in Canadian caribou populations. The knowledge I obtained from my study will set the stage and provide methods for the further elucidation of the epidemiology of these parasites in Canada across the range of caribou.Item Open Access Ecology of Mite Phoresy on Mountain Pine Beetles(2018-05-04) Peralta Vázquez, Guadalupe Haydeé; Reid, Mary L.; Cartar, Ralph V.; Kutz, Susan J.; Fox, Jeremy W.; Proctor, Heather C.Phoresy, a commensal interaction where smaller organisms utilize dispersive hosts for transmission to new habitats, is expected to produce positive effects for symbionts and no effects for hosts, yet negative and positive effects have been documented. This poses the question of whether phoresy is indeed a commensal interaction and demands clarification. In bark beetles (Scolytinae), both effects are documented during reproduction and effects on hosts during the actual dispersal are largely unknown. In the present research, I investigated the ecological mechanisms that determine the net effects of the phoresy observed in mites and mountain pine beetles (MPB), Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins. Using flight mills, I found that MPB flight increased with beetle size and body condition but was not modified by mite abundance. Mites were initially more abundant on larger beetles in better condition, but their dispersal success was similar among all hosts. Host dispersal was costly for both host and mites. Beetles lost mass whereas mites exhibited mortality. In the second study, I determined the number and survivorship of all juvenile stages of MPB development and found neutral effects of mites. Although I found a negative effect of mite abundance despite a positive effect of mite presence during host larval stage, there were no further effects during subsequent stages of beetle development. Moreover, I did not find effects of mites on the number or quality of adult beetle offspring. When observing the distribution of phoretic mites and beetle hosts in the field, I found that the range-expanding behavior of MPB might determine symbiont loss at the leading front of beetle expansion. Three mites were common: Tarsonemus ips, Proctolaelaps subcorticalis, and Trichouropoda australis. Of these species, only T. ips was prevalent among all sites. However, both total mite abundance, considering all three species together, and T. ips abundance alone were comparatively lower in the new area of MPB expansion. In addition, beetle body condition was similar in both historical and new areas of MPB distribution. Given the results, MPB and its phoretic mites sustain a commensalism and the lower distribution of mites may be a consequence of MPB outbreak dynamics.Item Open Access Genomic characterization and virulence gene profiling of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae isolated from widespread muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago(2024-07-14) Seru, Lakshmi V.; Forde, Taya L.; Roberto-Charron, Amélie; Mavrot, Fabien; Niu, Yan D.; Kutz, Susan J.Abstract Background Muskoxen are important ecosystem components and provide food, economic opportunities, and cultural well-being for Indigenous communities in the Canadian Arctic. Between 2010 and 2021, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae was isolated from carcasses of muskoxen, caribou, a seal, and an Arctic fox during multiple large scale mortality events in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. A single strain (‘Arctic clone’) of E. rhusiopathiae was associated with the mortalities on Banks, Victoria and Prince Patrick Islands, Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada (2010–2017). The objectives of this study were to (i) characterize the genomes of E. rhusiopathiae isolates obtained from more recent muskox mortalities in the Canadian Arctic in 2019 and 2021; (ii) identify and compare common virulence traits associated with the core genome and mobile genetic elements (i.e. pathogenicity islands and prophages) among Arctic clone versus other E. rhusiopathiae genomes; and iii) use pan-genome wide association studies (GWAS) to determine unique genetic contents of the Arctic clone that may encode virulence traits and that could be used for diagnostic purposes. Results Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the newly sequenced E. rhusiopathiae isolates from Ellesmere Island, Nunavut (2021) also belong to the Arctic clone. Of 17 virulence genes analysed among 28 Arctic clone isolates, four genes – adhesin, rhusiopathiae surface protein-A (rspA), choline binding protein-B (cbpB) and CDP-glycerol glycerophosphotransferase (tagF) – had amino acid sequence variants unique to this clone when compared to 31 other E. rhusiopathiae genomes. These genes encode proteins that facilitate E. rhusiopathiae to attach to the host endothelial cells and form biofilms. GWAS analyses using Scoary found several unique genes to be overrepresented in the Arctic clone. Conclusions The Arctic clone of E. rhusiopathiae was associated with multiple muskox mortalities spanning over a decade and multiple Arctic islands with distances over 1000 km, highlighting the extent of its spatiotemporal spread. This clone possesses unique gene content, as well as amino acid variants in multiple virulence genes that are distinct from the other closely related E. rhusiopathiae isolates. This study establishes an essential foundation on which to investigate whether these differences are correlated with the apparent virulence of this specific clone through in vitro and in vivo studies.Item Open Access Helminth infections in primary school children and ruminants from two elevations in Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania(2019-01-25) Eltantawy, Manar; Orsel, Karin; van der Meer, Frank; Hatfield, Jennifer M.; Kutz, Susan J.Intestinal helminths are a major health concern, particularly in developing countries like Tanzania. Vulnerability of primary school children and domestic ruminants to helminth infections in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania is not well-known. Therefore, the overall aim of this thesis was to characterize parasitism, including: prevalence, intensity, and biodiversity, in children and domestic ruminants from two ecozones in the NCA. Using coprological examinations, soil-transmitted helminths were identified in children and associations with ecozone, gender, age and body mass index were analyzed. In domestic ruminants, the same associations as well as associations with body condition score (BCS) and FAMACHA-anemia score were analyzed. In general, prevalence was high, with diversity and intensity generally highest in the high-elevation ecozone. Impact of various variables on parasitism parameters are helpful in developing evidence-based control of helminth infections and reduce impacts on health of children and domestic ruminants.Item Open Access Indigenous Knowledge and Biomarkers of Physiological Stress Inform Muskox Conservation in a Rapidly Changing Arctic(2020-12-11) Di Francesco, Juliette; Kutz, Susan J.; Checkley, Sylvia L.; Gerlach, S. Craig; Mastromonaco, Gabriela F.; Cooke, Steven J.; Pavelka, Mary Susan McDonaldGlucocorticoids play a key role in energy regulation and are mediators of the physiological stress response in mammals. Their concentrations are commonly measured in wildlife to understand the effects of environmental changes and anthropogenic disturbances, but their use is associated with multiple challenges and there is a need for species-specific validation. Muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) are an essential part of the Arctic ecosystem, where they have a strong economic, nutritional, and sociocultural value for Indigenous communities. Recent population declines and mortality events suggest that muskoxen may be threatened by the multiple environmental changes and associated stressors to which they are increasingly exposed. Overall, I sought to establish fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) and qiviut (woolly undercoat) cortisol as biomarkers of physiological stress in muskoxen, and to apply these tools together with Indigenous knowledge (IK) to explore potential causes and patterns of physiological stress in wild muskoxen. Through two repeated pharmacological challenges in captive muskoxen, I showed that qiviut cortisol and FGM levels accurately reflect long-term (over the period of the hair’s growth) and short-term changes in circulating cortisol, respectively. I also demonstrated that changes in circulating cortisol are not reflected in qiviut in the absence of growth and highlighted variations across body regions, significant differences in qiviut segments over time, and differences between shed and unshed qiviut. Additionally, I documented IK which provided novel insights on the potential stressors of muskoxen and their specific importance. Finally, I identified important factors influencing qiviut cortisol (sex, geographical location, season, and year), and found associations between qiviut cortisol and marrow fat and lungworm intensity. Findings were interpreted in part collaboratively with IK holders. This work has advanced our understanding of glucocorticoid deposition and stability in hair, and of the limitations and challenges associated with hair glucocorticoid interpretation. It has highlighted the multiple benefits of incorporating IK in wildlife endocrinology studies and provided a framework for doing so. Finally, identifying factors associated with qiviut cortisol is a key step to simultaneously investigating the causes and consequences, both at the individual and population levels, of physiological stress in muskoxen.Item Open Access Insights into food web structure through knowing the helminth parasites(2013-11) Chan, S.K. Florence; Lejeune, Manigandan; Carlsson, Anja; Liccioli, Stefano; Behrens, Stephanie; Kutz, Susan J.Item Open Access Molecular Investigation of Wildlife Herpesvirus and Parapoxvirus: Benefits and Limitations of Genetic Characterization of dsDNA Viruses from Tissues(2019-12-18) Dalton, Chimoné Stefni; van der Meer, Frank; Abdul-Careem, Mohamed Faizal; Kutz, Susan J.; Ruckstuhl, Kathreen E.Wildlife populations can be reservoirs or victims of pathogens shared with humans and/or domestic animals. Most diseases at the wildlife-livestock interface are caused by viruses. Herpesviridae and Parapoxviridae are families of important double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that have been implicated in diseases of wildlife, domestic animals, and humans resulting from spill-over or zoonotic transmission, yet still little is known about viruses circulating in wildlife. Wildlife health surveillance is a primary tool for the management of zoonotic diseases, the control of diseases of domestic animals, and the preservation of wildlife populations. Studies herein conduct molecular surveillance of herpesviruses (HV) and orf virus (a parapoxvirus) through diagnostic polymerase-chain reactions (PCR), sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis using tissues of various wildlife animal species in Canada. The viral DNA polymerase (DPOL) gene is an effective target for the detection and characterization of HV present in infected animals. Previously uncharacterized HV were characterized in marten across Canada, and Reindeer gamma-HV 1 was characterized in caribou from different herds. Phylogenetic analysis suggests HV have coevolved with their wildlife host at a species level. Detection of orf virus was most successful when targeting the viral immunodominant envelope protein gene: B2L. Orf virus was detected in muskoxen on Victoria Island in areas managed by the Northwest Territories (NT) and Nunavut (NU), and on the adjacent mainland of NU, Canada. Orf virus was present in males and females, from calf to adulthood, indicating this virus represents a disease threat for muskoxen. Next-generation sequencing was performed directly on the DNA extracted from tissues of four clinically infected, geographically distant muskoxen in our study area. Phylogenetic analysis revealed Muskox orf virus (MxOV), to be unique from known orf viruses. This thesis documents the diversity of HV circulating in wildlife, increases our awareness of limitations when using tissues for molecular surveillance, increases our understanding of orf virus infection in muskoxen, and highlight areas of much-needed research. Methodologies herein can be adapted for the surveillance of other dsDNA viruses, while the data directly contribute to the database of HV and orf virus sequences in Canadian wildlife that provide context for new or emerging pathogens.Item Open Access Patterns of helminth and protozoan parasite infections in bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis: sex, season and activity(2020-01-07) Rijal, Samridhi; Ruckstuhl, Kathreen E.; Reid, Mary L.; Kutz, Susan J.Males and females in sexually dimorphic species show differences in their physiology and behavior. Each sex may invest energy in mating and reproduction, rather than immune function at different times of the year since they have different priorities, i.e., securing mating access vs increasing reproductive events. This means that the two sexes may be more susceptible/ less tolerant to parasites at different times of the year. Since this is an observational study, I will be using fecal egg counts (FEC) in terms of eggs per 4 grams (EP4G) as a proxy for susceptibility/tolerance. Furthermore, when individuals have higher parasite FEC, they may need to spend more time grazing and ruminating to ensure enough energy to be able to invest in immune function. That is, higher FEC may lead to individuals spending more time grazing and ruminating as parasites might be siphoning energy and nutrients away from the hosts. I used bighorn sheep, Ovis canadensis, and five of their natural parasites, strongyle, Nematodirus spp., Marshallagia spp., lungworm and Eimeria spp., to investigate seasonality of parasites and host-sex bias and whether higher parasite FEC leads to individuals spending more time grazing. Generalised linear mixed models suggest that parasite FECs are different for male and female bighorn sheep between winter and non-winter seasons. However, the pattern of FECs between the sexes differ based on the parasite group. Strongyle FEC was significantly higher for both sexes during non-winter with male counts being higher than female counts in both seasons. Eimeria spp. count was higher in females compared to males compared in both seasons, but non-winter counts were higher than winter counts. In contrast, FECs for Marshallagia spp., and Nematodirus spp. was significantly higher in females in non-winter, but significantly higher for males in winter months. Following a similar pattern, lungworm larva counts were higher for males during winter, while female counts were lower in winter. Additionally, linear mixed models suggest that bighorn sheep individuals with higher strongyle FEC trended to increase the percent of time that individuals spent grazing, while higher Marshallagia spp. FEC showed a trend in decreasing the percent of time that individuals spent grazing. However, FECs did not affect the time individuals spent ruminating or laying.Item Open Access Risk Factors Influencing Parasite Counts Between- and Within-Litters in Columbian Ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus)(2019-03-26) Hammer, Tracey Lynn; Ruckstuhl, Kathreen E.; Neuhaus, Peter; Kutz, Susan J.; Reid, Mary L.The number of parasites carried by a host varies from host to host due to individualities that influence the risk of host exposure to parasites, subsequent invasion of the host and colonization by parasites, and the degree of parasite proliferation within the host. Factors that contribute to differences in risk include variation in host and parasite characteristics as well as in the surrounding environment. Features of the host that may impact parasite count include risk factors such as age, body size, genetic resistances, hormone levels and avoidance behaviors, whereas risk factors derived from the parasite comprises their capacity to find and colonize a new host, and mode of transmission (whether through physical contact, ingestion, inhalation, etc.). Environmental risk factors arise from fluctuations in climate, including microclimate, and the distributions of both host and parasite across the landscape - whether they are in tightly-clumped groupings or diffusely spread. Previous literature has primarily focused on factors that impact the risk of carrying parasites in adult hosts - with the notable exception of clutch size and parasite load. To my knowledge, no study as of yet has placed its central focus on comprehensively exploring risk factors in juvenile hosts with limited previous exposure to parasites. Columbian ground squirrels (Urocitellus columbianus) are used in this study to investigate risk factors to parasitism in juvenile hosts to fleas, lice, and Eimeria, a single-celled intestinal parasite. Columbian ground squirrels offer an ideal study system because offspring are born in environmentally and socially-isolated natal burrows which only the mother enters, making her the sole source of parental care and parasites to her offspring. Two-thirds of litters have multiple paternity, enabling investigation into the role of the father’s genetics. The risk factors tested were separated in two groupings: 1) those that varied between-litters, and 2) those that varied within-litters. Between-litter risk factors included: mother’s condition upon emergence from hibernation, mother’s age, mother’s parasite count, the number of times the natal burrow was changed, litter size, and host density around the natal burrow. Within-litter risk factors included weight, sex, and paternity. Offspring flea counts increased with local host density within 30 m of the nest burrow, and were higher in male offspring, and in offspring with lower body weight. Offspring louse counts increased with host density within 20 m of the natal burrow, and were higher in female offspring and lighter offspring. Eimeria oocyst counts in the feces were higher in offspring that moved natal burrows more frequently. Additional risk factors that had adequate influence to be included in the final models were: for flea count, maternal condition at emergence, for louse count, maternal louse count at weaning and maternal emergence condition, and for Eimeria oocyst count, litter size, mother’s age, and offspring weight. For both fleas and lice, risk increased with host density around the natal burrow; however the effective distance was different: 30 m for fleas and 20 m for lice. While fleas can jump from host-to-host in addition to living off host for short periods of time, lice require direct host-to-host contact which will shorten the effective distance. On the other hand, I propose one of the predominate risk factors influencing high Eimeria oocyst counts is maternal stress. Although stress was not directly measured in this study, offspring that carried more Eimeria had mothers that were older, who had produced larger litters, who had moved natal burrows more often, and who had other closely nesting adult females. All of these could possibly contribute to chronic stress which is known to weaken the immune system, and could additionally lower the ability of the mother to care for her litter and lead to increased risk of Eimeria infection. This study shows that factors which increased risk to parasite infestation in offspring were due to the interaction between the biology of the host and the parasite, as seen with parasite transmission mode for fleas and lice and its relationship to host density, and stress-related immune weakness and Eimeria oocyst count. The re-location of litters to new natal burrows, considered a method of parasite reduction, did not reduce offspring parasite counts. Instead, it appears that parasites infested the natal burrows when the mother prepared them in the weeks after she mated (i.e. during gestation). This made post-mating maternal parasite counts one of the most relevant maternal counts. The other maternal parasite count that consistently had relatively high correlation to offspring parasite count at weaning was maternal count at the same time, reflecting temporally recent transfers of parasites between mothers and their offspring. Sex, weight and yearly environmental conditions were also revealed to be relatively strong risk factors over others such as litter size, number of natal burrow changes, paternity, maternal age, maternal condition, and maternal parasite counts. Investigating offspring in their role as a host gives unique insights into the interactions between hosts and their parasites that are difficult to quantify in adult hosts. Effects stemming from offspring’s mother were found to have stronger effects than those of paternity or litter. Previously well-studied factors, such as litter size, were not found to be strong explanatory factors in this study; instead other factors that were associated with the specific biology of the host and parasite were more relevant, such as host density for fleas and lice, and for Eimeria counts, factors that could induce maternal stress such as neighbouring females, large litters and old age. The more holistic approach in this study, verses a study on the relationship between only a few variables, hopes to provide a clearer impression of the relative weight of risk each factor in determining host parasite count.